Tolkien's Beowulf: Observations on An Enlightening Criticism and It's Contemporary Critiques

It has held many names throughout the centuries. Thorkelin called it De Danorum Rebus Gesfis. Wanley Poesis called it Poeseos Anglo'Saxonicae egregium exemplum. J. R. R. Tolkien reminded us of a title lost to modernity, Beowulfiana. Tolkien and many that followed would also call it The Beowulf. Over time, criticisms of this poem would differ as greatly as the name; however, one man would approximate these critics and there critiques by changing the focal point of the criticism itself.

Longstanding notions, though varied in content, comprehended closely in summarization and focus on Beowulfiana before the overall conviction was shifted. “The fault of Beowulf is that there is nothing much in the story ... in construction it is curiously weak, in a sense preposterous ... ”1 (W. P. Ker; Tolkien, 1936) “In 1925 Professor Archibald Strong translated Beowulf into verse:2 but in 1921 he had declared: “Beowulf is the picture of a whole civilization, of the Germania which Tacitus describes. The main interest which the poem has for us is thus not a purely literary interest. Beowulf is an important historical document.”3 (Archibald Strong, 1925; Tolkien, 1936) Poesy is marginalized in the majority of Beowulfiana critiques, and diachronic value is overly-emphasized. At Oxford University, a professor of Anglo-Saxon named J. R. R. Tolkien reviewed a great majority of the Beowulfiana criticism of his day. Little did this professor understand how influential his marginalized lecture based on his research would become during the years that followed.

Holding a lecture on November 25^th, 1936 entitled Beowulf: The Monsters and the Critics, Tolkien addresses not only this relatively uniform notion of value in Beowulfiana, but adds a revived focus to the mixture, in itself not an actual critique but a shifting of attention. In this lecture he underlines his argument by denying the grounds referring to the poem and undermining the sparse literature he has reviewed concerning the poem, however, still maintaining the diachronic importance of the poem: “It is poor criticism, criticism that is directed to the understanding of a poem as a poem ... there is an historical explanation of the state of Beowulfiana that I have referred to ...[and] that explanation is important, if one would venture to criticize the critics ... why should we approach this, or indeed any other poem, mainly as an historical document[?]... Beowulf is ... so interesting as poetry, in places poetry so powerful, that this quite overshadows the historical content, and is largely independent of ... important facts.” (Tolkien, 1936 Beowulf: The Monsters and the Critics) His statement is so simple that the weight of it can be overlooked: do not focus upon Beowulfiana as merely historical in nature and nothing more. Do not forget that Beowulfiana is also a poem in itself, and thus deserves attention as such, but does not outweigh its diachronic value. As an example of the scholarly shift in focus on Beowulfiana, Burton Raffel writes: “... Beowulf's position as a great poem must remain primary; the other purposes it serves are important but peripheral to this central fact of sheer literary merit”4 By shifting the overall scholarly focus upon the merits of “the poem as a poem”, Tolkien gave greater weight to the poem's credibility in it's entirety, rather than the separate parts of the whole. Not many put this fact so bluntly as Ian Hissop and E. Christian Kopff, both contemporaries of more modern times, long proceeding Tolkien's lecture. Hissop writes: “[Tolkien's] criticism then and now seems like a breath of fresh air, removing the dusty pedantry that covers this Anglo-Saxon poem. He pours witty scorn on the literary archaeologists, men who dig ... anything but read the poem as a whole. How the modern critics must hate this essay.” Kopff writes: “It is scarcely too much to say that this one essay changed forever the study of a major work in the canon of English literature, that it established Beowulf as a major literary work ... in 1936 Tolkien found that “Beowulf has been used as a quarry of fact[s] ... more assiduously than it has been studied as a work of art.”5 Both of these contemporaries see the considerable weight of not only Tolkien's lecture, but of Beowulfiana as a whole, whether as a poem or a singular aesthetic piece. But many will revert or counter Tolkien's shift in focus and new ideals concerning the poem.

As criticism is frequently based on past criticism, often not giving a fresh perspective but a review of past speculation, often old viewpoints are dredged from the dusty past that skew Tolkien's argument for the poem. Daiches echoes past critical views of the poem by stating thus: “...[Beowulf is] structurally weak and providing insufficient unity of tone or organization to hold together effectively the two ... episodes ... the ultimate origin of the story is folklore ... working, as folklore does, on history.”6 (Daiches, 1970) Tolkien states the following, which undermines the arguments of even his future critics: “Nearly all the censure, and most of the praise, that has been bestowed on The Beowulf has been due ... to ... belief that [Beowulf] was something that it was not ... primitive, pagan, Teutonic, an allegory (political or mythical), or most often, an epic; or to disappoint at the discovery that it was itself and not something the scholar would have liked better ... a heathen heroic lay, a history of Sweden, a manual of Germanic antiquities, or a Nordic Summa Theologica.” (Tolkien, 1936) Nearly all contemporary critics stress one or more of the items Tolkien did not find in the poem, and this fact is grounded in the forward to the poem in the modern college literature anthology The Norton Anthology: “...the most vivid account left to us of the social world and life experiences of the Germanic and Scandinavian peoples; ...[the author of Beowulf] is both careful to preserve ... distinction between his Christian present and his pagan past.” But in the first few lines of this foreword to the poem, preceding the above can be found: “[Beowulf] is ... a heroic poem of dark magnificence...”7

From another perspective, one could not imagine why both views would not hold equal esteem and why there would be an argument at all as to whether Beowulfiana's diachronic or poesy outweighed one or the other in worth. Critics before Tolkien's time, those he argued against, would state that the diachronic was more valuable due to flaws in the focus, structure and content of the poem. Although Tolkien succeeded in bringing the literary value and poesy of the poem to the forefront, he did mention it overshadowing the diachronic in an independent way. Tolkien's “criticism of the critics” as he so mildly puts it, has played such a heavy role in how a modern critic views Beowulfiana, not in diachronic value but mainly poesy, that the role of diachronic is shadowed just as Tolkien stated, poesy above diachronic value, rather than stabilizing or unifying the importance of both. This was probably not Tolkien's intention when he originally lectured on the poem as he stressed the independent value of both its parts and its whole. It will be healthy to see a digression from both the weightiness lent to either side and a more uniform approach to the merits of both poesy and diachronic in not only Beowulfiana but in literate ventures in general.

1. Tolkien, J. R. R. Beowulf: The Monsters and the Critics, Oxford University, 1936; originally found by Tolkien in English Literature, Medieval pp. 29-34;

2. Tolkien, J. R. R. Beowulf: The Monsters and the Critics, Oxford University, 1936; originally found by Tolkien in Beowulf: An Introduction, chapter 8. Questions of Literary History, Date, and Authorship; Beowulf in the Light of History, Archaeology, Heroic Legend, Mythology, and Folklore-in his notes, Tolkien points out that there is no Poetry section.

3. Tolkien, J. R. R. Beowulf: The Monsters and the Critics, Oxford University, 1936; originally found by Tolkien in Constable, Beowulf translated into modern English rhyming verse, 1925

4. Ramey, Bill,The Unity of Beowulf: Tolkien and the Critics, 2004 The Unity of Beowulf ; originally found by Ramey in: Raffel, Burton, trans.

   Introduction, Beowulf. New American Library. New York 1963

   1. Contemporary Literary Criticism, Thompson Gale, 1997

   2. Daiches, David Critical History of English Literature, vol. 1, pp. 9, Ronald Press Company, New York, 1970

   3. Maynard, Mack, et al. The Norton Anthology of World Masterpieces: The Western Tradition, seventh ed, vol. 1, W. W Norton & Company, New York 1984

"You have noticed that everything an Indian does is in a circle, and that is because the Power of the World always works in circles, and everything tries to be round ...
The Sky is round, and I have heard that the earth is round like a ball, and so are all the stars
The wind, in its greatest power, whirls
Birds make their nest in circles, for theirs is the same religion as ours ...
Even the seasons form a great circle in their changing, and always come back again to where they were
The life of a man is a circle from childhood to childhood, and so it is in everything where power moves"

-Black Elk, Oglala

Read more reason and wisdom here:
Native American Wisdom

A side of darkness with your water?

Today was strange. During the passing of the first tropical storm of this season, Florida's west coast was bombarded by heavy thunderstorms and at times gale-force winds. This author decided to go out and get some grub with her significant other at Carraba's, a place where we have never eaten before. Being the "type" of person this author is, rarely would a home cooked meal be passed up for take-out fair.

The rain had been pouring the entire drive to the restaurant, but we were unperturbed. This is Florida! We drove up, were seated quickly. The atmosphere was dimly lit and faux grapevines covered wooden arbors hung from the ceilings. The kitchen was open and in full view of the patrons it served, which are quite appreciative of this notion.

After orders were taken, however, the atmosphere became quite gloomy. The power went out. Several easily excitable patrons began babbling nonsensically. The wood-burning grill lost its electrical ventilation, and the restaurant quickly filled with a thick cloud of smoke. The front doors were opened, as were the rear emergency exits in order to ease patrons eyes and noses. Their generator failed to operate properly, and so, the long wait for the utility to fix the problem began. Many patrons began to file outside, looking for the source of the problem, as if their observations would be of any use to them or anyone else. Obvious to this author was the problem across the street-someone had planted an oak beneath power lines, then let it grow unhindered until it was growing around the lines. The high winds had perhaps snapped the limbs into the lines, shorting or damaging them in some way or another. And, in fact, this is exactly where the utility crew went and began its repairs. Forty five minutes later, the ordeal was over, and nearly all of the patrons who had been present had left for quicker fare, leaving the restaurant quite empty when the lights came back on. But, we stayed. It turned out to be quite worth it.

After the meal, we went to Gamespot and traded in a console game for a PC version, then trekked over to PetSmart. Although they have dubbed themselves "smart", this author never finds them educated in much of anything, namely in herps. For as we walked up to the wall display with 5 1/2 gallon tanks brimming with reptiles, yet again this author felt a stab. Inside one 5 1/2 gallon tank (hardly adequate for anything except neonates for temporary means of enclosure and veterinary-approved temporary housing, and according to enclosure requirements issued by the Florida Game and Freshwater Fish Commission, illegal if longer than 60 days) were five Anolis sagrei sagrei, a nonindigenous, highly invasive species of lizard, along with a lone Anolis carolinensis, our Florida native. The A sagre sagrei were collectively mislabeled as "Caribbean Anoles", when the common name should be Cuban Anole. Aside from the terribly high price for something so precious to Florida herp enthusiasts, the insanity of even selling something native to the very same region, and the barbarity of keeping Anolis carolinensis with the very creature helping to push it to threatened status, it was very near death. This author knew it was not only poor husbandry through the telltale bowl of water ( A. carolinensis prefers drinking water droplets from leaves), to the dry substrate and poorly inadequate lighting, it was the presence of the highly competitive Anolis sagrei sagrei. This author caved in and bought her, before it was too late. Although emaciated and obviously dehydrated, she still appeared to have enough strength to live through the ordeal of emergency husbandry intervention and the initial shock of habitat transfer, if one could call PetSmart's idea of an enclosure a habitat.

The 14 day guarantee given in lieu of purchase (they neglected to give or even mention caresheets, not that I personally required one) was quite unnecessary. As soon as she was nestled in a new habitat, food was immediately introduced. The nearly starved to death anoline lizard immediately preyed upon some of the highly innappropriate cricket fare provided her (wild Green Anoles prefer soft-bodied insects). This author knew that her tankmates were no mates, nor should have been put together with her. When will pet stores and hobbyists realize that unnaturally mixing any species in an enclosure smaller than an average bedroom is detrimental? Especially when A. sagrei sagrei are helping, along with A equestris and A garmani, to destroy populations of A carolinensis, our phylogenetical state heritage, in the wilds of Florida? Common sense dictates this as unwise in the least.

After a light misting and a good meal, the little Green Anole already looks a little healthier. That's all it took to make her feel better. Sad. And yet, the saddest thing of all is that she should never have been there to begin with. Probably not wild-caught but farm-raised, this little Green Anole is safe now from the horrors of the pet industry. A self-excommunicated managerial staffer from just such an industry, this author knows only too well what people put animals through in the name of the almighty dollar, and its consequences have become disturbing. This author's foolishness through purchasing the Green Anole is obvious- I just supported that very same inhumane industry. But the only other option was death. Now this Green Anole may have a chance at life in the wild after a few veterinary diagnostics. But she will not be released here, for her nemesis, the Cuban Brown Anoles, have taken over here, and without natural, non-pesticide sprayed wetlands, she wouldn't survive, for her normal prey are the first to succumb to pesticides. And Pinellas boasts very little viable wetland habitat.

Perhaps, in a way, having the pet industry breed and supply Green Anoles, though just in Florida (they are considered highly invasive species in states like Hawaii, for example), is a good way to replace what we continue to senselessly destroy. Eventually, many well-intentioned mothers will release their child's forgotten "plaything" into the wild, which of course is not in the public's or animal's best interest. Please, take your unwanted pets to a shelter or animal rescuer. Unless of course, you are a Florida resident and are releasing a Green Anole... ;)

Floridian Poetry (series 2)

Gaelach Glas (Irish Green)

Swirling green of blooming love,
A beautiful rainy sky above,
To save us from the driest year,
God on high shall shed a tear.

On this turn, new dawn of man,
Destroying life like no one can,
God gives another Irish green,
Sowing with a mind so keen.

His attention to minute detail,
Spread into every mount and vale,
Death surrendered to His intimate hand,
As His heart beat for every land.

With fervent joy Earth Mother returned,
Beginning anew a cycle spurned,
Creatures of the land rejoice,
For God has heard your solemn voice.

© Copyright 2001 - LadySofia (no trademark)

More About Bioaccumulation and Biomagnification

This was an article written by this author and posted on Turtle Forum:

If you are unfamiliar with basic ecology, you may wish to review this material:

Environmental Biology - Ecosystems

"On January 24th, the Bush Administration proposed changes to pesticide usage that could undermine the Endangered Species Act. At this time the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) must consult with other wildlife agencies to assess the affect of new pesticide use on endangered species prior to their approval for use. The new proposal will exclude experts from giving their own consultation on the effects of new pesticides." (Defenders of Wildlife)

"The President’s policy benefits the chemical industry at the expense of the environment," said Defenders of Wildlife president Rodger Schlickeisen. "It is another example Americans paying the price as the President bows to the wishes of industry." (Defenders of Wildlife)

"Pollution and pesticides are among the greatest threats to wildlife and habitat," said Patti Goldman, Managing Attorney for EarthJustice’s Northwest Office. "The Bush administration’s policy weakens long-standing regulations that protect species and will only lead to more harmful chemicals in our environment." (Defender's of Wildlife)

With that said, bioaccumulation is the accumulation of a toxic chemical in various tissues of a living organism. This refers to how pollutants are known to contaminate the food chain, which we are a part of, whether or not considered at the top (as if this means we are immune to bioaccumulation). Biomagnification is an increase in concentration of a pollutant from one link in a food chain to another. Together they mean that even small concentrations of chemicals in the environment can find their way into organisms in high enough dosages to cause problems. In order for biomagnification to occur, the pollutant must be:

long-lived
mobile
soluble in fats
biologically active

If a pollutant is not active biologically, it may biomagnify, but most scientists really don't worry about it much, as if apparently lacking solid data on the effects of such known occurences of bioaccumulation and biomagnification is justification for no concern - data using levels of the pollutant found in our contemporary environs, not through short-lived overdose and exposure ( as is used is current laboratory regimens). And filling those data gaps through individuals or organizations paid to do the study in a non-independent manner is cause for alarm (let's say the FDA funds a group to do it, rather than the EPA; the group works for the chemical manufacturer and "cooks" the data). Talk about junk science!

A fine example of biomagnification is DDT, also known in the scientific world as dichloro diphenyl trichloroethane, and falls into the class of chemicals known as chlorinated hydrocarbons, a class with many other chemicals that follow the characteristics necessary for biomagnification. Many of us are well-aware of the problems in Falconiformes that DDT caused, like shell-thinning and little or no population fecundity. The influential book written by Rachel Carson, Silent Spring, which focuses on the negative fecundity effectuations DDT causes in orniths, Falconiformes in particular, is well known to ornithologists who focus on functional anatomy and chemistry. Even nearly 40 years later, those in chemical and agricultural industries still react in a bad way to Carson's literature.

A PDF of the document outlined in this argument (actual Federal Registry documentation).

Pesticide used only in Florida kills birds (w/Petition)

Leopard Frogs and biomagnification:

Popular Weed Killer Feminizes Native Leopard Frogs Across Midwest
Atrazine-Induced Hermaphroditism at 0.1 ppb in American Leopard Frogs (Rana pipiens): Laboratory and Field Evidence
Deformed Frogs in Minnesota

Anoline lizards

The following post by this author is from the Turtle Forum.

2/28/2004

Studying the different species of anoline lizards in the Antillean region, the first observation normally made is the occurence of similar ecological types, called ecomorphs (see Rand and Williams 1969 and Williams in 1972) on each of the seperate islands of the archipelago. In 1972 Williams described to science only 6 ecomorphs, these then being divided between dry and wet habitats. In 1983, however, he revisted the area and added to his list of ecomorphs not in existence previously. The ecomorphs that are known to exist at this point in time are: Trunk-Crown Giant, Trunk-Crown Dwarf, Twig, Trunk, Trunk-Ground, Boulder, Rockface-Cave, Bush-Grass, Bush, Aquatic, and Leaf Litter.

Most researchers believe Trunk-Crown or arboreal ancestors were the precursor of all other ecomorphs in anolines, as the treetops and canopies tend to have the greatest diversity of arthropoda. It has been suggested that after some time of evolution to fill a specialist niche in the canopy, successive anolines came to compete with the arboreal species, which forced them through competition to evolve and radiate from the canopy, where the greatest source of food occured, to other areas like the tree's trunk, the ground, or the leaf litter, for example.

It has been speculated through recent genetic research that these groups are totally unrelated to corresponding similar ecomorphs throughout the archipelago, evolving seperately from unrelated anolines. Ecomorphs of particular habitats have similar coloration, bodily dimensions, markings, and prey preferences. "Phylogenetic studies using mitochondrial DNA, conducted by Todd Jackman, in collaboration with Allan Larson and Kevin de Queiroz of the Smithsonian's National Museum of Natural History, clearly indicate that members of the same ecomorph class on different islands are not closely related. Hence, the similar assemblages on each island are the result of convergent evolution. Although such a phenomenon has been suggested in the past for other groups, it has never previously been demonstrated phylogenetically." (Losos Lab - the primary focus of the Losos Lab is on the behavioral and evolutionary ecology of lizards. Major questions concern how lizards interact with their environment and how lizard clades have diversified evolutionarily. Addressing such questions requires integration of behavioral, ecological, functional morphological, and phylogenetic studies. A major focus has been the evolutionary radiation of Caribbean Anolis lizards, but other lizard radiations are also being studied)

Eliciting discussion about comparisons between two more common notions held throughout many Anolis communities would be ideal: did the Anolis specialists (ecomorphs like trunk-crown and twig for example) evolve independently on each island, again and again in the same fashion? Or do you believe that as sea levels rose and larger archipelagos shrunk into smaller ones, populations were forced into isolation where speciation, radiation, and adaptation occurred? How would the latter work out with new ideas on the phylogeny of this genus with DNA evidence possibly disproving the theory? Could it be possible that they are actually related phylogenetically, but the span of time between each radiation is too great for similarities to remain? It is probable that it could be a mixture of both, or perhaps the wrong ecomorphs or species combinations are used during the studies in question.

To research or reference this topic, check out these resouces:

Frost, D. R., and R. Etheridge. 1989. A phylogenetic analysis and taxonomy of Iguanian lizards (Reptilia: Squamata). University of Kansas Museum of Natural History, Miscellaneous publications 81:1-65.

Lazell, J. D. 1992. The family Iguanidae: Disagreement with Frost and Etheridge (1989). Herpetological Review 23:109-112.

Macey, J. R., A. Larson, N. B. Ananjeva, and T. J. Papenfuss. 1997. Evolutionary shifts in three major structural features of the mitochondrial genome among iguanian lizards. Journal of Molecular Evolution 44:660-674.

Schwenk, K. 1994. Systematics and subjectivity: the phylogeny and classification of iguanian lizards revisited. Herpetological Review 25:53-57.

Adaptive Differentiation Following Experimental Island Colonization in ANOLIS
Lizards. Jonathan B. Losos, Kenneth I. Warheit and Thomas W. Schoener in Nature, Vol. 387,
pages 70–73; May 1, 1997.

Cannatella, D. C. & de Queiroz, K. 1989. Phylogenetic
systematics of the anoles: is a new taxonomy
warranted? Syst. Zool., 38, 57–68.

Most strikingly, when one goes to different islands among the Greater Antilles, one sees essentially the same set of ecomorphs on each island (with several exceptions). For example, if one saw a twig anole on Puerto Rico, one could go to each of the other islands and see a very similar looking animal living in the same sort of habitat and behaving similarly. For the most part, this is true for each of the ecomorphs.

Just happened to be websurfing whence came up this new map site. A good overhead view of Pinellas County, Florida, that truly underscores the loss of truly viable, pristine wetlands in just a tiny fraction of Florida. The dark green areas are forests of mangrove, scrub oak, cypress, or a combination of the aforementioned (the dark, nearly blackish green color that lines the small area along the coastline (Weedon Island Preserve, et cetera) and a few pockets around the center (Boyd Hill Preserve, et cetera). Not a very pretty picture, if you ask this author's opinion. Now full appreciation of the scope of the losses being underlined in this Blog in bold can grow. An astronaut would frown upon the speed of wetland "mitigation" in Pinellas County if he stayed in space for the span of over a decade, viewing from above, and he too would say it meant "absolve" protection, rather than even mitigate or slow the destruction. Fifteen years ago, the green was a much more noticeable presence on an overhead view. One can watch the development spread, what some would call "progressive" but this author would call regressive, and a threat to our health and safety.

One thing on the mind of many Floridians this month: hurricane season is just beginning. And without our intact barrier islands, beach dunes, and mangove forests to protect those inland, our grid-pattern county is going to invite the inundation by floodwaters and destructive winds, rather than abating any of it. It always makes one wonder how anyone could have been ignorant enough to want to live not just near the ocean, but right on the water's edge, notably in a floodplain plagued by hurricanes and tropical storms. Without the trees, you have a heightened erosive condition of the soil. Forests, marshes, estuaries, these collectives of flora, hold everything in place, and help make more, help keep the land in a perpetual motion of creation. People gamble away millions of dollars to risk losing everything they own when they build upon unprotected shores already stripped of trees and dunes, or they remove the protection when they build in places they should not. Besides, now even a tourist could not watch the sun set or rise unless they paid well for it, and this the intention of developers, not to the benefit to the public. Florida constituents are tired of paying for sand replacement on beaches for other people's "private views", when the presence of marsh, mangrove, and other wetlands would maintain erosion levels and increase the breadth of beaches. Many Florida constituents would rather pay to replace what has been destroyed-as in indigenous flora, not particulates of sand. False wetlands, which act as sponges for our site cleanup projects but not as viable non-polluted habitat, would retain particulates and plant matter, but would serve no other beneficial purpose and would in fact negatively impact humans and wildlife through retention of chemicals in the flora, meaning that as those plants die and deteriorate, the chemicals return to our soil and water, not solving the problem at all. Recycling and reclaiming our waste, refuse, and runoff does not mean burning it to be released in our atmosphere or planting faux wetlands to suck up the muck and release it back slowly over time as the flora deteriorate, or feed human waste and refuse back to native fauna. These are all contributors to bioaccumulation and severe violations against not only our renewable and non-renewable resources, but blows to our economy through later exposure, sickness, extinction of native wildlife. It is also in violation of many local and national laws. It is all a farce. For an American, it is shameful . To the tourist, a detraction, deceiving.

One good example of why humans should not build typical structures that interfere with the progress of the forces and processes that produce and control all the phenomena of the bioorganic world: California's coastline. As geologists understand it, California is sliding slowly into the ocean, and landslides occur on occasion. Yet, let human avarice take away the trees which slow the process of erosion and then build homes for millions of dollars on the mudflows that remain, all for that view. The avaricious will feel the weightlessness of their choices before they hit bottom.

Take a look at your own area's wetland losses at Google's site.

Actual known spread by this author is in red (personal observations and information on this invasive species fromNational Wildlife Federation), with dark blue highlights signifying dangerous populations of Osteopilus septentrionalis which could spread to other regions of North America, the Caribbean, and South America through shipping ports, while the original cyan highlights show the known spread of this species by the USGS. Data for central Florida is apparently lacking.

Range of encroachment in Florida of Osteopilus septentrionalis, according to the USGS. Data is grossly lacking in this assessment, though the author(s) of the USGS study does admit: "The range of this species as of 1997 is shown ... (and) further expansion has been reported by several sources, including this study...". This author is, however, happy that this team was funded to do this study. It shows that we are making headway against this potential threat to our American ecosystems. If only more funding was allocated to teams whose main objectives are to study the actual continual spread of this and other invasives, its subsequent impacts, and solutions to the problem of radiation by invasive species. It is hard to forget that this is only one of many species and only one among many factors impacting the very survival of our native species.

An accomplice of feral cats

Another import by the agricultural industry, Osteopilus septentrionalis. which by preying on native Amphibia and Anolis carolinensis (among other prey), aids feral felines in dramatically reducing or eradicating populations of Florida wildlife. Another negative connotation to the introduction and spread of this species: its secretions prevent natural predation by Florida wildlife. If encountered by you or children, be sure to wash the hands and other exposed areas thoroughly, and do not touch the face. The secretions from this frog irritate the mucous membranes in order to prevent predation. Introduction of this non-native frog's secretions to the mucous membranes causes itching, burning sensations and in some individuals, pain-like symptoms. Websites such as the National Wildlife Federation don't seem to realize that their range is much farther north than Sarasota. As the largest frog introduced to North America, this Osteopilus septentrionalis could spell disaster for every small herpetofauna, arthropod, and avian species it encounters on the North American continent.